Tool 1: Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
Purpose
To allow all participants to share their opinions and ideas on the community’s situation/ issues freely, on guide questions provided by the facilitator. Allow facilitators to get to know the community, and their main issues.
Procedure
Warm up the participants’ enthusiasm for the discussion and establish rapport with them: have a round of personal introductions, introduce the reason and topic/s of the FGD. A local person can also introduce the visitors and the purpose of the visit, as well as the community itself.
Ask participants about their life in the community. Use prepared guide questions on the issues at hand. The issues at hand can be chosen beforehand by the community leaders or contact persons of the facilitating group.
Allow all participants to speak up, especially if some are doing all the talking. Ask probing questions respectfully.
Summarize and validate responses to one or two (related) questions before moving on to the next question.
All points are summarized and written up on flipcharts.
At the end of the FGD, the facilitating team consults the community participants about their most relevant and/or priority issue. They can choose one or two issues.
The issue(s) will be the focus of the next PCA tools of the facilitating team. Each facilitating team might have a similar or different issue.
Comments
The FGD in this workshop is intended to introduce the group and community participants to each other, and for gathering ideas about what issues the community is facing, and what the people appreciate about their community and place. (See section on “8 Reminders for Good Questions”.)
Tool 2: Participatory Community Mapping
Purpose
Allow participants to share their appreciation and broad view of their community including:
Its geography and borders, resources and land use, issues and relationships with and within its surroundings.
Key sub-communities/sub groups (families/sectors/etc).
Key spaces of crops (main food and cash crops) and resources (fertile land, water); main agricultural production system (traditional, organic, chemical, mixed); services, authority, sacred and religious sites, and those of importance for the people in the community.
Procedure
Ask a person from the village to draw a map of their community on a large piece of paper. The map does not have to be accurate, just a sketch, that will include the boundaries on each side. Colors can be assigned to the main elements you wish to depict on the map (crops, production system, environmental issues, sacred places, places of conflict, etc)
Different groups that live in the community will be given a certain color of a house icon. (These groups have been identified earlier during the Focused Group Discussion and Transect Walk).
For example: different colors can be given according to: land ownership or tenure (if access/control over land is a main issue).
Ask each participant to write their name on a house icon of their color category, and write down specific information needed for the analysis. For agriculture, these can include: no. of hectares/ area of land tilled; production system; number of livestock, main crops; problems and issues in agriculture, etc.
Each participant then places their house icon on the map, showing the location of their farm or house, and explaining about what they wrote.
After each one has done this, a discussion can then be made on the issues or problems that have been raised (including the general situation of the land, water and forest resources), and some suggestions can come up from participants. All contributions from participants are written in large pieces of paper that everyone can read.
A summary of the discussion points is given to raise further reflection and insights on the issues, and validate the results from the participants.
Comments
Discussion to arrive to this analysis is as important, if not more important than the final products. The analysis is conducted to empower and support participants’ knowledge of and reflection about their community and how best to intervene within it, and not to produce a final written analysis report.
There is no right or wrong analysis. The results of the analysis are subjective and affected by our beliefs, concerns, and the information available to us. The wider the participation in the analysis the more representative is the analysis of reality.
Tool 3: Transect Walk
Purpose
Allow participants to share their broad views while pointing out the characteristics of their community, and provide more in-depth discussions on their issues.
Procedure
Community participants decide where to go for the transect walk. One of them draws a transect line along the map made earlier. The line can go through, or “transects” all zones/areas of the community in order to provide a representative view. The line can also go through on the important areas only related to the issue being analyzed.
The group follows the line on the map during their walk in order to observe conditions, people, problems and opportunities in each of the areas. Members of the research team talk to the local people they meet along the way in order to obtain additional information. The facilitating team members will be interested in observing different things in the community regarding the chosen issue.
A diagram or drawing is then drawn of the things observed in the transect walk.
Tool 4: Historical Timeline
Purpose
Allow participants to trace the history and development of an important issue in the village. This is helpful in understanding how something has developed, for example, traditional practices in land use, food production, clan and marriage systems, or an organization, or a community issue, a conflict, etc. Timelines can also be used to describe a community’s history, project or organizational histories, personal histories. Aside from presenting significant events, timelines can also identify changes over time.
Procedure
Ask participants about the starting point of the issue or happening that is being discussed, its initial history and then its most important developments, up to the present time. Illustrate the historical timeline on a large piece of paper.
Signify each development, historical unfolding or nodal point with a symbol so that the whole unfolding of the issue is clear to everyone.
Points are summarized and presented for validation to the participants, asking for their further comments, reflections and insights.
Points of participants’ discussions are also summarized in a flipchart paper.
The timeline can also be drawn on the ground with sticks, leaves and other objects.
Another approach is to have participants each write an event on a piece of paper and then have the group arrange the events in chronological order. Exact dates are not important, but the significant changes that have happened.
Comments
Examples of Timelines
Political events
Major disease outbreaks
Changes in natural resources
Cultural changes (e.g. changes in social values)
Development of project histories
Introduction of modern technology
Changes in industry or agriculture
Personal histories of selected community members
Discussion to arrive to this analysis is as important, if not more important than the final products. The analysis is conducted to empower and support participants’ knowledge of and reflection about their community and how best to intervene within it, and not to produce a final written analysis report.
Tool 5: Seasonal Calendar
Purpose
Allow participants to reflect on their major activities, events and happenings within the year, so that they analyze their seasonal trends and patterns and the causes of these. The larger purpose is to determine which practices they want to continue, and which they want to change.
There can be different calendars for men and women, to reflect the differences in gender roles.
Procedure
Participants are asked about the important seasons of their life in terms of economic, social, political and cultural aspects. These are reflected in a seasonal calendar, with the season/activity/aspect on the first column and the months of the year on the remaining columns. Participants may want to use their traditional calendar, if they have a different one from the western calendar.
Discussions on observations and insights on the calendar, depending on the themes or objectives: For instance, what are the busiest times of the year, why? Importance of these events? Relationships between events and patterns?
Comments
EXAMPLES OF SEASONAL CALENDARS
Price variations for food or other items
Indigenous seasons
Patterns of disease prevalence
Climate (rain fall and temperatures)
Types and quantity of cooking or heating fuel
Crop sequences, pests and diseases
Social events
Variations in food supply
Migration
Livestock diseases
Income and expenditures
Income-generating activities
Workload of men, women, and children
EXAMPLES OF RELATIONSHIPS TO BE EXPLORED WITH SEASONAL CALENDARS
Income and expenditures
Migration and disease outbreaks
Weather and disease outbreaks
Income and health center utilization
Workload and disease patterns
Tool 6: Venn or Stakeholder Diagram - Identifying Key Actors
Purpose
Allow participants to analyze and understand:
Key parties influencing a community or group of people, relationships and alliances between them
The key issues in the community
Procedure
Brainstorm the key actors in the community, (or from outside the community) who could be individuals or groups, including organizations, families, etc, who are directly or indirectly influencing the lives and relationships of people or their groups.
Write the name of each actor on a piece of cardboard/paper shaped as a square or circle. The size of the shape depends on the amount of influence/power each actor has.
Map out the relationships between actors on a large sheet of paper by means of lines and arrows (colors indicate different types of relationships; alliance, influence, conflict or intermittent).
Clearly define the issue(s) that influence each relationship. Write them down in square boxes and add to the diagram.
Comments
Ensure mapping covers actors and issues on various levels, the locality, the district/national level, regional/international including your own organization or enterprise.
Tool 7: Fish Bone – Analyzing Causes and Consequences
Purpose
Allow participants to analyze and understand:
The primary causes of their main issue.
The secondary causes of same issue.
The tangible consequences or results of the issue.
Procedure
Discuss what are the issues affecting people, and of these issues, which is their priority for action. They can vote for the one or two main issues if they are not able to agree.
Draw a fish head and write the name the main issue of the community.
Draw the spine connected to the head.
Draw fish bones emanating from the spine. Brainstorm the main causes of the issue and write them on these fish bones.
Draw for each main cause secondary fish bones that represent the secondary causes (i.e. causes of the causes) and brainstorm them.
Draw the fish scales and write inside each one a result or an
effect of this issue.
Comments
Ensure that the secondary causes are the causes of the primary ones and not their direct results. Use the question WHY to probe the primary and secondary causes.
Tool 8: Preference Ranking - Choosing Options
Purpose
Participants share their views and choose from different options that can be taken regarding their issues or problems, or to carry on steps that are already being taken.
Procedure
Participants present options or steps to take regarding their issues, and other participants express their views.
The options are listed in a column, and participants vote on each one, giving a score of 10 to their first choice, 9 to their second and 8 to their 3rd choice.
The votes are then counted and the option with the highest score is then chosen.
Comments
Participants don’t have to agree upon all ideas. They can include comments, ticks or crosses on each other’s ideas BUT they cannot cross out an idea that is not their own.
Tool 9: Force-field Analysis - Analyzing forces, devising solutions and expressing commitment
Purpose
Participants analyze the facilitating and hindering forces that would affect their chosen course of action. This would help them to anticipate and prepare for problems along the way. In this exercise, the participants also express commitment for the collective action that they decide on.
Procedure
The option is expressed as a goal, written on top of a line in the middle of a flipchart paper. Draw a line in the middle.
Facilitating or helping forces are identified and written on top of the line, with arrows going upwards. Facilitating forces work to support the achievement of the goal. The length of the arrow denotes the strength of the force.
Hindering forces or blocks to the goal are written below the line, each one on a downward arrow. The length of the downward arro also denotes the strength of the force.
Participants express ideas on what actions could help to minimize the constraints. All suggestions are written up on another piece of paper on the board or wall.
Participants are then asked what actions could help to maximize the facilitating forces or opportunities. These can be written in another color from the first set of suggestions.
While reviewing the suggested actions, each participant can express his/her opinion and volunteer to put a heart-shaped red piece of paper (or any other shape or color) on the suggestion where s/he would like to commit or contribute.
Comments
Participants don’t have to agree upon all ideas. They can include comments, ticks or crosses on each other’s ideas BUT they cannot cross out an idea that is not their own.
8 Reminders for Good Questions
Good questions, they say:
• Sound conversational
• Use words participants would use
• Are easy to understand
• Are clear
• Are short
• Are open-ended (“Open-ended questions are a hallmark of group interviews” (ibid, p. 41)
• Are one-dimensional (the question asks one thing only and it doesn’t group things that may be perceived as different. For example asking if something is “useful and practical” might be confusing as some people interpret these things as different.)
• Include good directions (Are you asking them to rank something, write something down, answer verbally, etc).
Questions should be clear, honest, stimulating and appropriate. Avoid questions that will tend to just frustrate the group or that serve to embarrass people. In general it is best to put questions to the group rather than put individuals on the spot. The first question should be easy to answer for everyone and some argue that positive questions should be asked before negative questions.
The design should not contain too many questions in order to give time to probe. Plan for between 5 and 20 minutes per question (depending on the question).
You can use the final question as the “insurance question” and do a summary of the questions asked and then ask something to the effect of “Is there anything we missed?”
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Questions can serve different purposes, getting more information, clarifying points, comparing points and more.
Open ended questions
“What was your experience doing X”
“How do you feel about Y?”
“What are some ways that X is different than Y?”
“What do you like about X?”
“What don’t you like about X?”
“What are the needs of this neighborhood?”
Closed questions
“Is it fair to say X is true?”
“Do you think Y is accurate?”
“When did you move to this place?”
“How much do you support this statement on a scale of 1-5?”
Questions to get more information
“What else can you say about that?”
“Can you give me an example?”
“Is there anything else you can add?”
“Can someone build on that?
“On a scale of 1-5 how important is this?”
“Why?”
“Is there anything else you would like to add?”
“Can you tell me more about how you felt about X?”
“Why do you think you feel this way?”
Questions to clarify a point
“I want to make sure I understand, can you explain more?”
“Can you give me an example?”
“What is the best way to summarize your point for the notes?”
“What do you mean when you say X is [‘no good’]?”
“What does X word mean to you?
Questions to compare perspectives:
“How do others feel about that point?”
“Who has a different perspective on that?”
“Can someone build on that?”
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ASKING QUESTIONS |
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DO’S |
DON’TS |
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Ask “why”? |
Ask many “yes” or “no” questions. |
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Follow up if you are unclear—”will you tell me more about that?” |
Ask more than one question at a time. |
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Ask for specifics if you get a very general response to a question |
Ask leading questions (“Isn’t this true that YYY is important?”) |
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Ask others in the group what their views are when you only have heard one person’s opinion |
“Correct people” or tell them they are wrong about something |
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Seek out input from all participants |
Be afraid of asking for clarification |
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Ask if the process is clear |
Pressure someone to speak |
References and further reading
Fals-Borda, O., Rahman, M. (1991). Action and Knowledge: Breaking the monopoly with Participatory Action-Research. New York: Apex Press.
Pretty, J., et. al (1995). A Trainer’s Guide for Participatory Learning and Action. London: IIED.
Reason, P., Bradbury, H. (2008). Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice 2nd edition. London: Sage Publications.
Kumar, S. (1999). Force-Field Analysis: Applications in PRA. PLA Notes, Issue 36, pp. 17-23.
Krueger, R., Casey, M.A. (2000). Focus Groups: a practical guide for applied research, 3rd edition. London: Sage Publications.